Rhetoric is the art of ruling the minds of men.
Quote: Plato
Persuasive language is not just a tool used in speeches and formal writing, we also use it in everyday life and in a wide variety of situations. Such as if you are having a discussion with a colleague, for example, or if you are trying to haggle a reduction in the cost of something. Or if you are giving a speech on the need to act on climate change or writing a letter to the editor about the same topic. If you are writing a scientific report or perhaps trying to sell a product. We are often in situations where we try to persuade others into acting or thinking in a specific way. Studying rhetoric helps us become better at persuasion.
We often react to spoken and written words without knowing why we react. For example, you might get emotional when you hear a really good speech. Perhaps you're swayed into buying things you don't really need? And why do some politicians seem more trustworthy than others? All of this is related to the art of rhetoric. Knowing how to use the tools of rhetoric improves communication skills, and ensures that more people agree with your perspective. It will also help you become a more critical reader of texts that are aiming to persuade you into changing your perspective.
What is a rhetorical analysis?
You may be asked to write a rhetorical analysis of a text, a speech, an advertisement, or another kind of text. For the sake of simplicity, in this article we will only refer to this as 'a text'. Your job is to uncover the message of the text in question and find out how this message is imparted to the reader. Rhetorical analysis is less concerned with WHAT the author is saying, but rather HOW they are saying it. Whether or not you agree with the author is not relevant here - you are asked to dissect the text to determine the writing techniques used to deliver the message.
Understanding context
Before you start writing your analysis, you should find out more about the context of the text. Ask yourself questions like:
Who is the author of this text?
When and where was the text written? What was the context?
Who is the author trying to reach? Who is the audience?
What is the topic of the text? What are the main ideas?
What is the purpose of the text? What does the author hope to accomplish?
Understanding the context of the text is important, because it may help you understand the author’s choice of words and rhetorical devices. If the purpose of the text is to entertain, it will look very different from an informative text. In addition to this, the author may want to persuade a specific group in society, such as young, educated professionals, children who want to ensure a safe future for themselves, workers fighting for higher wages, minority groups who feel discriminated against, and so on. Who the intended audience is, will influence the style and tone of the text.
Kairos and aptum
When we consider the connection between a text and its context we may use the terms kairos and aptum .
Kairos
The Greek word kairos can be translated as 'at the right moment'. If you want to persuade someone, you have to know what to say and how to say it, but also when to say it. In everyday speech we talk about 'timing'.
Since the word 'kairos' is Greek, it can be hard to fit naturally into a sentence. You can, for example, say that 'the sender makes good use of kairos, saying the right thing at the right time'. Or you may state that 'the sender shows a poor understanding of the importance of kairos'.
Aptum
Aptum is also a Greek word, and it can be translated as 'suitable' or 'appropriate'. Aptum relates to how you say something. Will you get your point better across if you shout, or if you speak in a calm voice? Should you crack jokes in a funeral eulogy? Can you send your teacher an email saying 'if you give me this grade it only proves that you are a complete idiot'?
If a persuasive text is to have an impact, there must be harmony between the text and the context. If what is said is said in the best possible way, you can say that the sender has taken aptum into consideration, or that they follow the demands of aptum. If there is disharmony between what is said and how it is said, you can say that the sender does not consider aptum.
Appeals:
According to Aristotle, a speaker's ability to persuade an audience will always be based on three different persuasive appeals: ethos, logos and pathos. These forms of appeal have later been called the rhetorical triangle.
- Ethos
- is how the author convinces the audience that they have credibility. Is the author knowledgeable and an expert on the topic?
- Logos
- is the use of logic and reason. Does the author use facts, such as statistics, data, or test results to present their case? Is the text well-structured and is the argument coherent and cohesive?
- Pathos
- appeals to emotions. Is the author trying to evoke strong feelings for or against something? Does the author use language that creates a strong feeling of sympathy, empathy, or antipathy? We often encounter the use of pathos in advertising, whether that's for cosmetic products that promise to make us feel beautiful, or cars that promise all the excitement of speed combined with the clear conscience of being environmentally friendly.
Remember that these appeals are closely intertwined: A strong logical appeal (logos) will often convince the reader that the author is ethical and diligent in their analysis (ethos). Similarly, if an emotional appeal (pathos) appears manipulative and weak, this may undermine a writer’s credibility (ethos).
Analysing a persuasive text:
When we analyse a persuasive text we look at the devices the author uses to convey their message. These can be rhetorical devices or literary devices. Some are sonic devices, in which the sound of the words can be used to evoke emotions and thoughts. Other devices will create a certain image in the audience's mind.
When we have found a literary device, we should ask ourselves how this device relates to either pathos, logos, or ethos.
Here is a list of some of the most common devices that you can look for when analysing rhetorical texts.
Devices to look for:
- Alliteration
- The occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of several words that are in close proximity to each other.
Example: 'Maybe she's born with it. Maybe its Maybelline.' (Maybelline Commercial)
- Assonance
- The repetition of similar vowel sounds within sentences.
Example: 'Hear the mellow wedding bells.'
- Allusion
- A reference to a person, historical event, statement, piece of art, literary work, or popular culture. The reference is indirect, and it is assumed that the reader has knowledge of what is being referenced.
Example: My ideal man is as handsome as Thor, as inventive as Iron Man, and as kind as Spider Man.
- Anaphora
- The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive clauses that have different endings.
Example: 'I have a dream' (Dr. Martin Luther King Jr) and 'We shall fight on the beaches' (Winston Churchill).
- Antimetabole
- A phrase or sentence is repeated in reverse order.
Example: 'Not all schooling is education nor all education, schooling.' (Milton Friedman)
- Antithesis
- Putting two opposite ideas together in a sentence for contrast.
Example: 'That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.' (Neil Armstrong)
- Epanalepsis
- Repeating the beginning of a clause or sentence at the end of that same clause or sentence, with words intervening
Example: The King is dead, long live the King.
- Epithet
- Using an adjective or phrase to emphasise a person's characteristics. Often, this adjective or phrase becomes linked to the person and can be used with their name or instead of their name.
Example: Bloody Mary = Queen Mary I, the Bard = William Shakespeare), the Boss = Bruce Springsteen.
- Hyperbole
- An exaggeration not meant to be taken literally.
Example: This is the worst film in the world.
- Metaphor
- A comparison made by stating one thing is the other.
Example: America is a melting pot.
- Simile
- Compares one thing to another to make a description more vivid, using the words 'as' or 'like'.
Example: 'My love is like a red, red rose.' (Robert Burns)
- Onomatopoeia
- Words that mimic the sound they represent.
Example: Drip, hiccup, pop, buzz, zoom, bang, moo...
- Oxymoron
- A combination of contradictory words.
Example: Cruel kindness, definitely maybe, old news...
- Parallelism
- Using components in a sentence that are grammatically similar. It makes sentences flow better by adding rhythm.
Example: The dogs were barking, the bells were ringing and the children were shouting.
- Personification
- The attribution of human characteristics to something non-human.
Example: The wind howled in the night.
- Rhetorical question
- Questions that don’t require an answer, they are used to create a dramatic effect, make a point, and make your audience think.
Example: Who wouldn't want to be a millionaire?
- The rule of three
- The use of a series of three elements is a well-known feature of rhetoric. Associating three elements with each other, makes it easier for the audience to remember what is said.
Example: 'Homes have been lost; jobs shed; businesses shuttered.' (Barack Obama)
Analyse
In a rhetorical analysis, you should not only point out which appeals and rhetorical devices have been used – you should also explain the effect the devices have and whether the author manages to convince their audience. Were all forms of appeal used in the text? Did you find that one appeal was more successful than others? Were they appropriately used? What other devices were used? All in all, how did this text affect the audience?
Remember that if you manage to point out the rhetorical devices used by others and the effect they have on an audience, you might also be able to adopt this into your own writing, making you a much more persuasive writer or speaker. And what may perhaps be just as important: you will be able to notice when these same methods of persuasion are being used on you.